Alcohols Effects on Testosterone

Alcohols Effects on Testosterone Addiction Alcohol Use Print Alcohols Effects on Testosterone Study May Explain Aggressive Behavior in Some Drinkers By Buddy T facebook twitter Buddy T is an anonymous writer and founding member of the Online Al-Anon Outreach Committee with decades of experience writing about alcoholism. Learn about our editorial policy Buddy T Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Daniel B. Block, MD on November 25, 2019 twitter linkedin Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania. Learn about our Medical Review Board Daniel B. Block, MD on November 25, 2019 Westend61/Getty Images More in Addiction Alcohol Use Binge Drinking Withdrawal and Relapse Children of Alcoholics Drunk Driving Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery Although most research has demonstrated that alcohol inhibits the secretion of testosterone, there is one study that found that alcohol can sometimes induce a rapid increase in plasma and brain concentrations of testosterone.?? This finding, that some level of alcohol consumption might increase testosterone in the brain for some individuals, could explain why alcohol causes some people to become aggressive while intoxicated. It could also explain some other behavioral effects associated with increased testosterone levels, such as increased libido, the authors suggested. We have demonstrated that there are very different results in the way two different groups of male rats form testosterone after acute administration of alcohol, said Robert H. Purdy, of The Scripps Research Institute and senior author of the study. These differences in animals may reflect similar individual differences in humans, and provide new insights for understanding individual differences in the behavioral and endocrine pathology associated with ?alcohol abuse.?? Neuroactive Steroids Measured According to the published report, researchers injected either alcohol or 1,1-dideuteroethanol (2 g alcohol/kg body weight) into the abdominal cavities of two groups of rats, 30 un-operated and 24 adrenalectomized and castrated (ADX/GDX) Wistar males. 1,1-dideuteroethanol is a nonradioactive form of alcohol in which two of the hydrogen atoms on carbon atom #1 of ethanol have been replaced by deuterium atoms, which can then be traced.?? They then used mass spectrometry to determine both the number of neuroactive steroids present and the degree of deuterium in specific neuroactive steroids isolated from brain samples. Fourfold Increase in Testosterone The investigators found that concentrations of testosterone increased fourfold in the frontal cortex and threefold in the plasma of the unoperated rats 30 minutes after alcohol administration.?? ADX/GDX rats had testosterone concentrations that were only 5% of those found in the unoperated rats after alcohol injection. The findings demonstrated that alcohol oxidation is directly linked to testosterone biosynthesis, the authors said.?? Direct Alcohol-Testosterone Link Unanticipated Our finding of a direct link between alcohol administration and the level of the neuroactive steroid testosterone in the brain of these experimental animals was unanticipated from prior studies with another species of rats, Purdy said. Although many other studies clearly demonstrate that chronic consumption of high dosages of alcohol appears to be consistently inhibitory and suppresses reproductive function, said Dennis D. Rasmussen, research associate professor in the department of psychiatry at the University of Washington, this study raises the possibility that episodes of alcohol consumption may also at least temporarily increase testosterone levels, with the direction of the response likely being dependent upon a variety of factors, including dosage and personal characteristics. This particular dosage produced blood alcohol levels and behavioral responses consistent with intoxication. So, alcohol consumption, under at least some conditions and by at least some individuals, may acutely stimulate testosterone levels in the plasma and brain of both males and females and thus could elicit some of the behavioral effects associated with increased testosterone levels, such as increased libido or aggression. The Role of Testosterone and Alcohols Effects The studys findings join those of other studies in which alcohol administration increased plasma testosterone levels in a gender- and dose-dependent manner. Together these studies are important, he said, because they illustrate that what has become a largely accepted principleâ€"that alcohol consumption inhibits plasma testosterone levels and reproductive functionâ€"is not universally true. Rasmussen suggested that future research builds upon and adds to previous findings regarding alcohols effects on testosterone. Does Tolerance Develop Over Time? It would be important to determine whether lower dosages of alcohol, which do not induce rapid pronounced intoxication and ataxia, would also produce the acute increase in testosterone, and whether this response to lower dosages would be consistent across different strains of rats. Also, does tolerance develop with repeated administrations? he asked. Does this increase in testosterone occur following elective self-administration of alcohol? Rasmussen said. Finally, and probably most interesting, what role might the demonstrated changes in testosterone play in behavioral responses to acute ethanol consumption? Are there gender differences in these responses? And, if the responses do occur in females, are they different during different stages of a womans cycle?

Definition and Examples of Embolalia in Speech

The term embolalia refers to hesitation forms in  speech — meaningless filler words, phrases, or stammerings such as um, hmm, you know, like, okay, and uh. It is also called  filler, spacers, and vocal filler. Embolalia comes from two Greek words meaning something thrown in. In The Painted Word (2013),  Phil Cousineau observes that embolalia is a near-perfect word to describe what we all do at some point in our lives — we throw words around without thinking about them. Examples and Observations Um, this is a fairly unique moment both in our, you know, in our country’s history, and, and in, in, you know, my own life, and um, you know, we are facing, you know, unbelievable challenges, our economy, you know, health care, people are losing their jobs here in New York obviously um, ah, you know. (Caroline Kennedy, in an interview conducted by Nicholas Confessore and David M. Halbfinger of The New York Times, Dec. 27, 2008)Mrs. Kennedy has managed variously to seem utterly opaque while lacking in the basic skills of plain speaking. There has been not a little mockery of her dependence in conversation on the verbal filler, you know. She was heard to utter it 138 times in a conversation with reporters from The New York Times. In a single TV interview, she reportedly galloped past the 200 mark. Thats a lot of you knows. (David Usborne, Now Voters Turn Against Kennedys Stuttering Campaign. The Independent, Jan. 7, 2009)Uh, in a school. And my father, he was, uh, from the Unite d States. Just like you, ya know? He was a Yankee. Uh, he used to take me a lot to the movies. I learn. I watch the guys like Humphrey Bogart, James Cagney. They, they teach me to talk. (Al Pacino as Tony Montana in the film Scarface)Ive heard about it. I hope you go — you know — I hope you go back to the ranch and the farm is what Im about to say. (President George W. Bush, explaining that he hadnt yet seen the film Brokeback Mountain, Jan. 23, 2006) Throwing Words Around The nervous, I mean, stammering habit of, you know, inserting, I mean kinda throwing meaningless words into, you know, a sentence, when youre, ah, talking. Tossing in the word throw was no accident, as evident in its  root word, the Greek emballein, from em, in, and ballein, to throw in or at . . .. So embolalia turns out to be a sixty-four-dollar-word to describe the habit of throwing around words without thinking . . .. The habit is characterized by often uncontrollable utterances  (hmm, umm, errr), and is a cringeworthy nervous tic in languages everywhere. The cause may be a general deterioration of the spoken word, or a lack of respect for it, sheer nervousness, or a disdain for proper, poetic, or colorful use of the language. (Phil Cousineau,  The Painted Word: A Treasure Chest of Remarkable Words and Their Origins. Viva, 2013)​ In Defense of Verbal Stumbles Modish public speaking coaches will tell you that its OK to say uh or um once in a while, but the prevailing wisdom is that you should avoid such disfluencies or discourse particles entirely. Its thought that they repel listeners and make speakers appear unprepared, unconfident, stupid, or anxious (or all of these together). . . .But uh and um dont deserve eradication; theres no good reason to uproot them. . . . Filled pauses appear in all of the worlds languages, and the anti-ummers have no way to explain, if theyre so ugly, what euh in French, or à ¤h and à ¤hm in German, or eto and ano in Japanese are doing in human language at all. . . .In the history of oratory and public speaking, the notion that good speaking requires umlessness is actually a fairly recent, and very American, invention. It didnt emerge as a cultural standard until the early 20th century, when the phonograph and radio suddenly held up to speakers ears all the quirks and warbles that, before then, had flitted by. (Michael Erard, â€Å"An Uh, Er, Um Essay: In Praise of Verbal Stumbles.† Slate, July 26, 2011)

A Brief Note On Membrane Technologies And Its Effect On...

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT Membrane technologies usually play a big role in wastewater treatment processes. Recently, due to the stricter regulation for drinking water quality, improvements of membrane materials and modules, smaller footprint, relative simplicity of installation, membrane technologies have drawn an increasing attention in water treatment processes [1]. Recent years, population growth, urbanization and industrialization has rapidly increased the clean water demand, however, the anthropogenic activities brought by these development, such as wastewater discharge, waste disposal and fertilization, has endangered the water supply by polluting water resources. Especial for the drinking water supply,†¦show more content†¦Membrane technology was firstly used for desalting purpose. In order to improve drinking water supply, sea water desalination has been employed in many coastal areas as a supply of high-quality water, without impairing natural freshwater ecosystems [3]. Membrane technology desalination facilities, based on reverse osmosis technology, has been employed past two decade to replace early large-scale thermal desalination which results in a large emission of greenhouse gases. At present, reverse osmosis is the most energy-efficient technology for seawater desalination and is the benchmark for comparison for any new desalination technology [3]. As the developing of the technology and increasing high quality water supply, some other pressure-driven membrane technologies have been employed for multiple purposes in water treatment industry, including desalting, disinfection by-product (DBP) control, disinfection (pathogen removal), clarification, and removal of inorganic and synthetic organic chemicals[2]. Besides this, other related membrane technologies, such as MBR technology, also have been employed to upgrade the conventional water treatment facilities to meet the higher water quality requirement. 2. APPLICATION OF MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGIES IN DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PROCESS During last few years, membrane technology has been widely accepted as a means of producing high quality clean water from variety of water resources. In addition to

Critical Response Essay Free Essays

In the article â€Å"Pandemic or Panic† (2010) by Brian Molloy and the article â€Å"Hindsight is easy† (2010) by Erica Grove, they both discuss the way WHO response to the outbreak of H1N1 influenza and they present different perspectives on how the money was spent on and how the resource was distributed. Molloy is neutral about the WHO’s response of H1N1 influenza outbreak, while Molloy is highly skeptical. First, Molloy argues that WHO send everyone into a panic about H1N1, but it is not the threat people imaged it to be. We will write a custom essay sample on Critical Response Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Grove, however, states that it is necessary for the WHO and the government to take  the threat of H1N1 seriously. Next, Molloy claims that British government spend a lot of money on vaccine which makes two major pharmaceutical companies earn billions from swine flu, and there is a conflict of interest between the government and drug manufactures. He believes that this money should be spent on a right situation like helping disable instead of treating flu. Grove also believes that there is a mismanagement of the distribution of vaccine. Discussion: Molloy claims that the WHO and the government spends massive expenditure on doses of vaccine, while the death rate  for H1N1 is far low than for ordinary influenza. He criticizes the reports of H1N1 cases are exaggerated which send people into a panic about H1N1. By contrast, Grove states that the WHO did not overreact to the crisis. Rather, she feels grateful that the authorities took the threat of a pandemic seriously. She also points out that everything is always better to overprepare than to underprepare. Molloy appears to have overlooked that the powerful of virus can be. In fact, there are a couple of factors like infectivity, severity and lethality which can all affect the strength of a virus. Transmission is also a key factor to determine how the virus spread and be identified. As Molloy mentions that the death rate for H1N1 is relatively low than for ordinary pandemic, it does not mean that H1N1 is a weak influenza. Perhaps the low death rate is due to early trace the source, infected people are well isolated from the rest of the community in order to control the spread of H1N1, or synthesis of a new vaccine by scientists in a short period of time. These could be one of the reasons of why the death rate for H1N1 is low. In this sense, Molloy fail to notice that. How to cite Critical Response Essay, Essays

Leaders and Leadership Theories

Question: Discuss about the Leaders and Leadership Theories. Answer: Introduction This research presents an evaluation and analysis on the leadership theories that are very much required in an organization. The study of leadership theory and approaches help in evaluation of the theories and traits of the leaders in an organization (Gardner, Cogliser, Davis, Dickens, 2011). With the time, gradually there are various types of changes take place in the development and growth of the leadership. The report identifies the traits and qualities of the leaders that are necessary to motivate and to manage the organization. There are various types of theories like contingency theory, situational theory, behavioral theory, exchange theory, path-goal theory, new leadership models, etc. these all theories and there summarize version will provide an in-depth understanding to the learners (Cummings et al, 2010). Leadership and Roles of individual as leaders in implementation of the leadership activities in various contexts within the organizations There are various types of activities performed by the leaders. The major activities performed by the leaders are- Team building activities Employee engagement activities Leadership insights Performance management Productivity of the employees Effective meetings Maintenance of good relations with the employees In-house coaching Training and development of the employees Motivation and morale of the employees Facilitation Control and observation on the performance Focusing a team Self-development Team leading challenge Inventory management Preparation and successful execution To overcome with the problems of the leaders and to execute the leadership theories the organizations have to apply effective approaches so that the performance of the organization can become better and they will be able to achieve competitive advantage. A leader must have clear mission and vision for all the problems present in the company so that they can establish strategic planning on them and bring improvement. The problem can be resolved by the implication of the transparent communication between the employees and employers of the company. It establishes good relation between them. There is a need of break down silo and also to enables an organization that has less boundaries. An essay on individual reflection Challenges faced by the leaders In this individual reflection, I would like to say that there are various types of emerging challenges faced by the leaders. Being a leader, its not easy to work peacefully as they have to face different types of issues and problems. The work done by the leaders is rewarding as they experience various phases and identified their hidden potential to manage the situation in the best way they can do it (Kellerman, 2012). These are some points that will let us know about the challenges faced by the leaders- Isolation- It is the real situation of leaders as they have to make tough decision by their own. The leaders are required to be their own boss. The leaders have to maintain the privacy of the individual to himself only as they cannot expose each and every problem to the top level of the management (Gardner et al, 2010). This isolation may leads in loneliness, conflicts, frustration but still the leaders have to prepare them and make effective decisions Lack of honest feedback- The leaders are unable to provide honest feed back to the employees as they wait for the right time. Lack of emotional intelligence- Emotional intelligence plays a vital role to be self-aware, self-regulate, social awareness, and social regulation (Leppan, Metcalf, Benn, 2010). Lack of the skills and talent to lead from a place of influence- Sometimes there is a lack of the skills and talent to lead from a place of influence rather than authority so that the leaders can establish good relation with the employees (Klenke, 2016). Management and leading the changes effectively- It is a global challenge faced by the leaders to manage and implement changes in the organization. Thinking big picture and systematically- The work of the leaders is to pull the individuals form the daily routine and to make them ready for the big picture. The big picture here depicts the organizational goal (Day, Fleenor, Atwater, Sturm, McKee, 2014). Challenges faced by team/ group Being a part of a team, I noticed that there are lots of challenges and issues faced by the team members and group like there is absences of the identity to the team members, difficulty in the decision making, poor communication the team members are unable to resolve the conflicts by their own, lack of participation, lack of creativity, personal thinking, the in effectiveness in the leadership, etc. External and internal roles of the leaders Internal factors According to my point of view, the internal factors that are crucial in nature are motivation, hard work, potential of the employees, etc. the leaders have to manage the effectiveness and efficiency of the company and the leaders (Avey, Palanski, Walumbwa, 2011). External factors The most crucial external factors for the leaders are change management and competition. There are lots of competitors present in the external environment of the business that has to be managed by the leaders of the company (Auerbach, 2012). In order to have competitive advantage, the leaders have to take effective steps for the company. Other factors can be socio-economic, cultural, technological, legal, ethical, legal, etc. (Bolden, 2011) Importance of leaders with the leadership traits I have studied that the traits of the leaders plays a vital role as they help the leaders as well as company to provide surety that this particular leaders would be able to manage the business organization properly. There are is big debate on the statement that the leaders are made not born. The true leaders generally ignore such arguments and they only concentrate on their work (Dinh et al, 2014). There are various types of qualities that are found in an effective leader if a leader is able to display these qualities which he actually posses then he can be a good leader. The qualities and traits are: Honesty Forward-looking Competent Inspiring Intelligent (Cummings et al, 2010) The positive factors for the successful workforce culture and team engagement My point of view on the factors to be a successful leader is the contribution of the leaders in the successful workforce culture and team engagement of the business organization. It can be done by application of prominent leadership theories and management of the team. (Northouse, 2012). The major factors that contributes in the employee and team engagement at the workplace are- Career development opportunity- A career development opportunity the employee is very important as it help the employees and team to realize them that they are equally important. There is a need to provide them informal learning program. Flexibility - Flexibility is the other factor that contributes in the engagement of the team and employees. It provides employees flexibility according to which they show their creativity. Fair pay structure - Fair pay structure is a fair and sensitive issue that lays a vital role in the engagement. It motivated the employees and it results in better performance of the employees. A learning culture - The Company must adopt a learning culture in their company. It helps the in the employee engagement and ultimately it help in the achievement of the companys goal. Recommendations for the issues of leadership and problems As per my views, there are various types of problems faced by the leaders of an organization as they have to manage the entire organization using their skills and knowledge. The problems are the part of each and every organization. It is the essence of the leadership. But this could not affect the goal achievement of the company (Quera, Beltran, Dolado, 2010). There are various ways by which leaders can manage the issues and problems and turn them as an opportunity. It can be done through self-promotion, power-plays, management of resources, work-life-management, etc. the competitors are the biggest external theory for the leaders. To overcome with these problems, the leaders have to apply effective theories so that the performance of the organization can become better and they will be able to achieve competitive advantage. A leader must have clear mission and vision for all the problems present in the company so that they can establish strategic planning on them and bring improvement. The problem can be resolved by the implication of the transparent communication between the employees and employers of the company. It establishes good relation between them. There is a need of break down silo and also to enables an organization that has less boundaries. It helps in better communication and relations. The employees and employers working in an organization must have open mind and broad senses. It is one of the factors that help in better management of the company ad human asset. The leaders also have to concentrate to establish a solid foundation strategy within the company as it helps in strong background and base of the employees. Conclusion The conclusion of the study states that leadership plays a vital role in the management and motivation of the employees and workforce working in an organization. The structure of the report is that in the beginning there was discussion on the role and responsibilities of the leaders and implementation of the theories of the leadership in an organization which is very important but the implementation must be effective and successful. There are various types of challenges faced by the leaders in management of group and teams but theories can help the company. The fact is that the Leaders perform internal and external roles that tell about the effectiveness of leadership in an organization. There is a relevance of leadership in an organization as it has a positive factor that help the company to become successful that are directly or indirectly related to the leaders. References Angus-Leppan, T., Metcalf, L., Benn, S. (2010). Leadership styles and CSR practice: An examination of sense making, institutional drivers and CSR leadership.Journal of Business Ethics,93(2), 189-213. Auerbach, S. (Ed.). (2012).School leadership for authentic family and community partnerships: Research perspectives for transforming practice. Routledge. Avey, J. B., Palanski, M. E., Walumbwa, F. O. (2011). When leadership goes unnoticed: The moderating role of follower self-esteem on the relationship between ethical leadership and follower behavior.Journal of Business Ethics,98(4), 573-582. Bolden, R. (2011). Distributed leadership in organizations: A review of theory and research.International Journal of Management Reviews,13(3), 251-269. Cummings, G. G., MacGregor, T., Davey, M., Lee, H., Wong, C. A., Lo, E., ... Stafford, E. (2010). Leadership styles and outcome patterns for the nursing workforce and work environment: a systematic review.International journal of nursing studies,47(3), 363-385. Day, D. V., Fleenor, J. W., Atwater, L. E., Sturm, R. E., McKee, R. A. (2014). Advances in leader and leadership development: A review of 25years of research and theory.The Leadership Quarterly,25(1), 63-82. Dinh, J. E., Lord, R. G., Gardner, W. L., Meuser, J. D., Liden, R. C., Hu, J. (2014). Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives.The Leadership Quarterly,25(1), 36-62. Gardner, W. L., Cogliser, C. C., Davis, K. M., Dickens, M. P. (2011). Authentic leadership: A review of the literature and research agenda.The Leadership Quarterly,22(6), 1120-1145. Gardner, W. L., Lowe, K. B., Moss, T. W., Mahoney, K. T., Cogliser, C. C. (2010). Scholarly leadership of the study of leadership: A review of The Leadership Quarterly's second decade, 20002009.The Leadership Quarterly,21(6), 922-958. Kellerman, B. (2012).The end of leadership. New York, NY: Harper Business. Klenke, K. (Ed.). (2016).Qualitative research in the study of leadership. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Northouse, P. G. (2012).Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage. Quera, V., Beltran, F. S., Dolado, R. (2010). Flocking behaviour: agent-based simulation and hierarchical leadership.Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation,13(2), 8.

The Copernican Revolution

The Copernican Revolution Introduction Modern science can be said to have its roots from the Copernican theory, though it was received with uncertainty by the Copernicans prior to the seventeenth century (Curd 3). Most of the scientists in the sixteenth century believe Ptolemy’s theory of Earth-centered astronomy, as well as Tycho Brahe’s theory of Geoheliocentric system. The reluctance of early scientists in accepting the Copernican theory makes their later approval raise a few questions about the other theories (Curd 3).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Copernican Revolution specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One big question posed by this shift of mind is why and when the Copernican theory gained approval over the Ptolemaic theory. Current reviews of the ideas previously adopted as explanations of the change of beliefs have been found to be unsatisfactory. The Copernican theory had been found to be more precise in its foreca sts and clear-cut than the Ptolemaic, which is not the case today (Curd 3). Reasons for accepting the Copernican theory One of the reasons as to why the Copernican theory was accepted is that it satisfied the â€Å"taste† of people, who disregarded rationale and facts. This harsh conclusion by Thomas Kuhn was challenged by Zahar and Lakatos, who argued that the research undertaken for the Copernican programme was empirically precise (Curd 3). The empirical progression of the Copernican theory was based on its essential geometric configuration, which had adequate projecting capabilities. Lakatos and Zahar later edited the conception of a novel fact, stating that it was not necessary for it to be unfamiliar, but it should not have been acknowledged in the formation of the theory (Curd 3). Glymour was also in support of the Copernican theory, compared to the Ptolemaic one, stating that the latter was objectively inferior. The superiority of the former theory was observed in its capability to validate and be analyzed by the facts of that time based on positional astronomy (Curd 4). Comparing the Heliocentric and Ptolemaic theories Support on the validity of the heliocentric theory has been from various scientists, like Millman and Hall, who found it satisfying before the discoveries by Newton and Galileo (Curd 4). The book on testing and confirmation of theories by Glymour looks at the two theories comparatively; that is the geocentric and the heliocentric theories. Glymour and Zahar believe to have been contributors to the understanding of the heliocentric theory, in terms of its methodical logic, harmony and accord, as expressed by other authors like Rheticus, which is contrary to the belief that the theory was irrational, as put forward by Kuhn (Curd 4). One way to compare the two theories is by using the equation (1), 1/T p = 1/T e -+ 1/S p where T is the heliocentric period of planet P, Te is the heliocentric period of Earth and S is the time interval between successive episodes of retrograde motion as viewed from earth. When the planet is superior, the sign in the equation is used, while + is used for an inferior planet (Curd 5). Inferior planets are Mercury and Venus. The Copernican theory works with an excess of three planets on the superior side, while the Ptolemaic theory works with the superior planets only. The Ptolemaic theory also fails to explain the relationship between the motion of the planets and the solar component.Advertising Looking for essay on astronomy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Copernican theory offers various explanations unlike the Ptolemaic theory (Curd 5). One of the things enlightened by the Copernican theory is the progressively diminishing value of S, as the distance of the planet from earth increases, irrespective of the direction (Curd 5). The limits of the Ptolemaic theory do not allow for the determination of the displa cement of planets from earth. Aristotle defended one of the theories in the Ptolemaic theory that states that the period of a planet is proportional to the size of its orbit (Curd 6). In the heliocentric theory, the distances are obtained with reference to the distance between the planets and centre of revolution, which is actually the sun. These displacements that are predetermined are used as a basis for the order assignments, which is an indication of harmony and order, characteristics of Copernican theory, and lacking in the Ptolemaic theory (Curd 6). Bases on the tests conducted between the two theories, the Copernican theory emerges as the better one with greater explanatory power. The tests were based on the same positional data (Curd 6). The Tychonic theory The Copernican revolution was defined as the change of belief from the Ptolemaic theory to the Copernican theory. The revolution was dependent on two decisions namely the denunciation of the Ptolemaic theory as untrue, an d the recognition of the Copernican theory as correct (Curd 6). The prudence of either choice is not explained by the positional data due to the effect of two factors namely the Tychonic theory, a third alternative theory, and the existence of vital drawbacks to the Copernican theory. The Tychonic theory was published towards the end of the sixteenth century by Brahe. This theory suggests a geoheliocentric array whereby the earth is static and at the centre (Curd 6). The sun and the planets are said to revolve around the earth. Therefore, the planets have the orbit of the sun as their deferent, and their major epicycle is the heliocentric orbits. Unlike the Ptolemaic theory, the Tychonic system is comparable to the Copernican theory, both kinematically and geometrically (Curd 6). The Tychonic theory is like the Copernican theory in that in spite of its two centers of revolution, it provides for the derivation of equation 1, and the calculation of the displacement of the planets from the sun (Curd 7). The Copernican theory had two main problems namely the perceptible proof that the earth is static, and the lack of noticeable stellar parallax.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Copernican Revolution specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These problems were unique to the Copernican theory, since the other two theories were geostatic. The scientists in support of the Copernican theory argued that the two problems were contradicting with the requirements of the theory, which are two terrestrial motions. The writings of Galileo, in the early seventeenth century were sufficient to disregard the Ptolemaic theory, though the issues in the other two theories remained (Curd 7). Semi-Tychonic systems appeared in the 16th and 17th centuries and believed that the earth rotated, but did not revolve around the sun (Curd 7). The semi- Tychonic theory was accepted since it enjoyed similar merits with those of the C opernican theory, as well as its simplicity, which made sure to ignore the independent motion of every celestial body. This was especially beneficial in its acceptance after the discovery of Newton’s first law of motion, which defines the forces that maintain a body in circular motion (Curd 7). Conclusion The acceptance of the Copernican theory was supported by both observation and acceptance on its scale of rationality as was seen in the Tychonic alternatives (Curd 8). One deduction observed in the determination of the validity of the theories is that the scientists who support the law focus a lot of their energy and time to build on it, and therefore defend it from harsh criticism, and non-believers (Curd 8). The justification of any theory is only dependent on scientific analysis, to solve any mysterious questions and doubt in people (Curd 8). Curd, Martin V. The Rationality of the Copernican Revolution. PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Scienc e Association (1982): 1, 3-13.

Deciding to Licence or Assign When Selling a Patent

Deciding to Licence or Assign When Selling a Patent After youve brought your new idea to full fruition, youve invented it; and after youve gotten your intellectual property protection, youve patented it. Like most independent inventors, the next task at hand will be commercializing your product, you make money from it. If the following conditions apply to you: You have decided for a variety of reasons that you shouldnt be the one to manufacture, market, and distribute your invention yourself, you invented a better mousetrap but you dont want to go into the mousetrap business.You were/are not an employee and your invention was/is not automatically assigned to your employer as specified in your contract. There are two common ways to profit from your patent: licensing and assignment. Lets take a look at the differences between the two and help you decide which path is better for you. The Licensing Route Licensing involves a legal written contract where you the owner of the patent are the licensor, who grants rights to your patent to a licensee, the person that wants to license your patent. Those rights can include: the right to use your invention, or copy and sell your invention. When licensing you can also write performance obligations into the contract, for example, you dont want your invention to just sit on the shelf so you can include a clause that your invention must be brought to market within a certain amount of time. Licensing can be an exclusive or non-exclusive contract. You can determine how long the licensing contract will be in effect. Licensing is revocable by a breach of contract, by preset time limits, or by a failure to meet performance obligations. The Assignment Route Assignment is the irrevocable and permanent sale and transfer of ownership of a patent by the assignor (thats you) to the assignee. Assignment means that you will no longer ever have any rights to your patent. Typically its a one-time lump sum total sale of your patent. How The Money Rolls In - Royalties, Lump Sum With licensing your contract can stipulate a one-time payment or/and that you receive royalties from the licensee. These royalties usually last up until your patent expires, that could be twenty years that you receive a small percentage of the profits from each product that is sold. The average royalty is about 3% of the wholesale price of the product, and that percentage can commonly range from 2% to 10%, and in very rare cases up to 25%. It really depends on what kind of invention you have made, for example; a brilliant piece of software for an application with a foreseeable market can easily command double-digit royalties. On the other hand, the inventor of the flip-top drink can is one of the richest inventors in the world, whose royalty rate was only a tiny percentage. With assignments you can also receive royalties, however, lump-sum payments are much more common (and bigger) with assignments. It should be pointed out that because licensing is revocable when someone doesnt pay you your royalties thats a breach of contract, and you can cancel the contract and take away their rights to use your invention. You would not have the same weight with assignments because they are irrevocable. So in most cases, it is better to go the licensing route when royalties are involved. So which is better, royalties or a lump sum? Well consider the following: how ​novel is your invention, how much competition does your invention have and how likely is it that a similar product will hit the market? Could there be a technical or regulatory failure? How successful is the licensee? If there are no sales, ten percent of nothing is nothing. All the risks (and benefits) involved with royalties are avoided with a lump sum payment, and with assignments, that lump sum payment you receive, you never have to refund. However, negotiations for a lump sum payment do acknowledge the fact that the buyer is paying more upfront because they are assuming more risks to gain themselves a greater profit in the long run. Deciding Between Assignment or Licensing Royalties should be the main consideration when deciding between licensing or assignment. If you choose to receive royalties, choose licensing. If you want the capital that the best lump sum payment will bring you choose assignment. Are you in debt from your invention project? Would the money advance other projects and erase your debts? Or is your invention ready for commercialization, ready to make and sell, and you have determined that sales would be good and that you want royalties, then licensing is probably the better choice for you.